Top-level managers are responsible for setting organizational goals. Middle-level managers are engaged in carrying out their goals. Finally, lower-level managers are responsible for running every work unit in an organization.
Pyramid diagram. Pyramid Diagrams. Pyramid Diagram 4 Level pyramid model diagram - Information On the downside, this tends to consolidate power at the top of the organization, of building steep corporate ladders and often heavily polarized income.
It can also create one-way information flows, where top management creates plans without understanding the core processes of the organization. Managing organizations vertically can reduce flexibility and agility. FedEx Organizational Structure : This is an organizational structure example that cleanly demonstrates a vertical delegation of managerial responsibilities. The higher the level of management, the broader their scope. This means that lower level managers have a high degree of detail-orientation.
High level managers tend to have a substantial amount of experience, ideally across a wide variety of functions. Top management teams are also often industry experts, having a close association with the long term trajectory of the businesses they operate in.
They often benefit from being charismatic, powerful communicators with a strong sense of accountability, confidence, integrity, and a comfort with risk. The primary role of the executive team, or the top-level managers, is to look at the organization as a whole and derive broad strategic plans. Company policies, substantial financial investments, strategic alliances, discussions with the board, stakeholder management, and other top-level managerial tasks are often high-risk high return decision-making initiatives in nature.
Top-level management roles are therefore often high stress and high influence roles within the organization. Middle management is the intermediate management level accountable to top management and responsible for leading lower level managers.
Recognize the specific responsibilities and job functions often assigned to middle-level management professionals. Most organizations have three management levels: first-level, middle-level, and top-level managers. These managers are classified according to a hierarchy of authority and perform different tasks. In many organizations, the number of managers in each level gives the organization a pyramid structure.
Middle management is the intermediate leadership level of a hierarchical organization, being subordinate to the senior management but above the lowest levels of operational staff.
For example, operational supervisors may be considered middle management; they may also be categorized as non-management staff, depending upon the policy of the particular organization. Four-tier pyramid: Workers, middle managers, senior managers, and executives : This figure illustrates the hierarchy of management within an IT department. Note that middle management is tasked with 1 their tier of technical skills, i.
Middle-level managers can include general managers, branch managers, and department managers. Middle managers may also communicate upward by offering suggestions and feedback to top managers. Some of their functions are as follows:. Because middle managers work with both top-level managers and first-level managers, middle managers tend to have excellent interpersonal skills relating to communication, motivation, and mentoring.
Leadership skills are also important in delegating tasks to first-level managers. Middle management may be reduced in organizations as a result of reorganization.
The changes may occur in an effort to reduce costs as middle management is commonly paid more than junior staff or to make the organization flatter, which empowers employees, leaving the organization more innovative and flexible. Frontline management balances functional expertise with strong interpersonal skills to optimize specific operational processes.
One perspective that can be taken on management is a hierarchical view. Under this perspective, managers are responsible for different degrees of organizational scope, which can be visualized as having responsibility over a larger volume of processes and people. When illustrating this concept, the lower level managers are at the bottom of the chart often shaped something like a pyramid while the executives are at the top.
Coast Guard. Data stored in computer systems form a hierarchy extending from a single bit to a database, the major record-keeping entity of a firm. Each higher rung of this hierarchy is organized from the components below it. Bit Character - a bit is the smallest unit of data representation value of a bit may be a 0 or 1. Eight bits make a byte which can represent a character or a special symbol in a character code.
Field - a field consists of a grouping of characters. A data field represents an attribute a characteristic or quality of some entity object, person, place, or event. Record - a record represents a collection of attributes that describe a real-world entity.
A record consists of fields, with each field describing an attribute of the entity. File - a group of related records. Files are frequently classified by the application for which they are primarily used employee file. A primary key in a file is the field or fields whose value identifies a record among others in a data file. Database - is an integrated collection of logically related records or files. A database consolidates records previously stored in separate files into a common pool of data records that provides data for many applications.
The data is managed by systems software called database management systems DBMS. The data stored in a database is independent of the application programs using it and of the types of secondary storage devices on which it is stored. There are three principal methods of organizing files, of which only two provide the direct access necessary in on-line systems.
Data files are organized so as to facilitate access to records and to ensure their efficient storage. A tradeoff between these two requirements generally exists: if rapid access is required, more storage is required to make it possible. Access to a record for reading it is the essential operation on data. There are two types of access:. Sequential access - is performed when records are accessed in the order they are stored.
Sequential access is the main access mode only in batch systems, where files are used and updated at regular intervals. Direct access - on-line processing requires direct access, whereby a record can be accessed without accessing the records between it and the beginning of the file.
The primary key serves to identify the needed record. There are three methods of file organization: [Table 6. In sequential organization records are physically stored in a specified order according to a key field in each record. It is fast and efficient when dealing with large volumes of data that need to be processed periodically batch system.
Requires that all new transactions be sorted into the proper sequence for sequential access processing. Locating, storing, modifying, deleting, or adding records in the file requires rearranging the file. This method is too slow to handle applications requiring immediate updating or responses. In the indexed-sequential files method, records are physically stored in sequential order on a magnetic disk or other direct access storage device based on the key field of each record.
Each file contains an index that references one or more key fields of each data record to its storage location address. Direct file organization provides the fastest direct access to records. When using direct access methods, records do not have to be arranged in any particular sequence on storage media. Characteristics of the direct access method include:.
Computers must keep track of the storage location of each record using a variety of direct organization methods so that data can be retrieved when needed. New transactions' data do not have to be sorted. Processing that requires immediate responses or updating is easily performed.
A database is an organized collection of interrelated data that serves a number of applications in an enterprise. The database stores not only the values of the attributes of various entities but also the relationships between these entities. A database is managed by a database management system DBMS , a systems software that provides assistance in managing databases shared by many users.
Helps organize data for effective access by a variety of users with different access needs and for efficient storage.
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